Head of State: General Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir, June 1989-

Sudan, Africa’s biggest country, owes its existence as one unit to colonial history. Sudan is divided by religion (70 per cent Muslim, 25 per cent animist, 5 per cent Christian), ethnicity (between African and Arab origin Sudanese), tribe and economic activity (between nomadic and sedentary cultures). Country has been in near constant conflict since it became independent 1956. Most significant conflict has been that between north and south, with first civil war lasting from 1956-1972, and second civil war from 1983-2005.

Loose Ottoman-Egyptian administration collapsed 1880s after national-religious revolt led by self-appointed Islamic Mahdi. Anglo-Egyptian forces captured Khartoum 1898 and established jointly-administered condominium. British kept north and south separate until fused 1947, with political power given to northern elite ahead of independence in January 1956. Fearing marginalisation by more populous north, southern army officers mutinied 1955, eventually forming Anya-Nya guerrilla movement. General Abboud seized power Khartoum 1958 instituting policy of Islamisation. After Abboud was forced out by popular uprising 1964. Number of Arab-dominated governments succeeded each other until coup of General Nimieri 1969. Following failed coup attempt by Communists 1971 which left Nimieri isolated politically, he began to seek peace with neighbouring countries (Ethiopia and Uganda) and southern rebels. Addis Ababa peace agreement was signed with Anya-Nya March 1972, allowing for Anya-Nya integration into national army and autonomy for south. However, systematic violation of agreement by government, combined with increasing Islamic shift in late 1970's and discovery of oil in southern Sudan eventually led to resumption of war. Agreement was unconstitutionally revised 1977, and northern troops deployed to oil-rich town of Bentiu. Southern troops mutinied against government early 1983. Nimieri abrogated Addis Ababa agreement June 1983, dissolving south’s constitutional guarantees and declaring Arabic official language. Islamic Sharia law was announced as sole source for Sudanese law September 1983. Southern grievances crystallised around Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA) group led by John Garang. Nimieri was overthrown by popular uprising 1985 and democratic government, led by Umma Party's Sadiq al-Mahdi, was voted into power 1986. Moves towards peace agreement between SPLA and government were dashed when National Islamic Front (NIF) led bloodless coup June 1989, day before bill to freeze Sharia law was to be passed. Led by General Omer al-Bashir, NIF unravelled steps towards peace, revoked constitution, banned opposition parties, and moved to Islamise justice system. NIF simultaneously stepped up north-south war, proclaiming jihad against non-Muslim south. SPLA was weakened 1991 by fall of Mengitsu regime Ethiopia, and major split within its ranks, which led to serious inter-ethnic fighting in south. SPLA nevertheless kept afloat through alliances of convenience with northern movements opposed to NIF, and strong regional support. Eritrea became de facto base for Sudanese opposition after Eritrea accused Khartoum of supporting Islamic Jihad insurgents. Ethiopia accused Sudan of assistance in June 1995 assassination attempt on visiting Egyptian President Mubarak. Khartoum’s harbouring of Osama bin Laden and other Islamic fundamentalist groups throughout early to mid-1990's led to gradual international isolation, culminating in U.S. cruise missile attack 1998 following terrorist bombings of U.S. embassies in Nairobi and Dar-es-Salaam. On and off negotiations between government and SPLA under Kenyan-led regional Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) body derived little progress from 1994-2001. Machakos Protocol of July 2002, which granted self-determination referendum for the south after six year interim period, while Islamic Sharia law to remain in north, provided framework for future negotiations. Naivasha Accords, bringing peace between North and South Sudan for first time in 20 years, officially signed 9 January 2005. Peace process had sufficient momentum to survive death of SPLM leader and Vice-President elect John Garang and, by October 2005, new constitution had been ratified, new government sworn in (52% executive posts for ruling NCP and 28% for SPLM), and South's autonomous legislature and government operational.

Darfur province became latest chapter in Sudan's civil wars when Sudan Liberation Army/Movement (SLA) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebels took arms against government February 2003. Rebels claimed years of political, economic and social marginalisation of the region. Rebels made up of predominantly African sedentary tribes, such as Fur, Zaghawa and Massaleit. After string of military victories in spring 2003, government responded to rebellion by arming Arab "Janjaweed" militia to clear civilian population bases of African tribes thought to be supporting rebellion. Violence and broken ceasefires continued throughout 2004 and 2005 despite intermittent peace talks and presence of African Union protection force from August 2004. Divisions between and within the two rebel groups exacerbate conflict and hinder negotiations. 1.5-2 million civilians displaced and at least 180,000 dead, probably substantially more. Humanitarian aid disrupted due to security situation. March 2005, UN Security Council referred situation in Darfur to ICC Prosecutor for investigation; Sudanese government continues to oppose ICC involvement. Updated January 2006

For further information see Crisis Group reports and briefings on Sudan. The CrisisWatch database provides a report on monthly conflict developments for Sudan since September 2003.

The Current Situation

UN Security Council Resolution 1706, passed on 31 August 2006, extended to Darfur the mandate of the UN mission in Sudan (UNMIS), which currently has 10,000 in-country personnel monitoring the North-South Comprehensive Peace Agreement. The resolution "invited" Khartoum's consent to the deployment of 20,600 UN peacekeepers to the region – a consent which Khartoum refused to give. A reinforced UNMIS would take over from the African Union's (AU) currently overstretched African Mission in Sudan (AMIS). A compromise was reached in November 2006, which consisted of three phases of UN assistance to AMIS – a light support package, a heavy support package, and eventually a "hybrid" AU-UN force. On 16 April 2007 the Government in Sudan in Khartoum accepted the UN heavy support package – allowing up to 3,000 UN personnel in Darfur to assist the AU troops, as well as helicopters and armoured personnel carriers, and on 12 June 2007, they accepted the proposal for the AU-UN hybrid force. Despite these acceptances, there is much skepticism around whether the ruling National Congress Party (NCP) will allow timely implementation.

The security and human rights situation in Darfur has deteriorated since Sudan’s government and one of three rebel factions signed the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) on 5 May 2006. Conflict has intensified, with further government reliance on aerial bombardment and on its allied – and "re-supplied and rearmed", according to the AU Ceasefire Commission – Janjaweed militia. Aid agencies warned that attacks by armed groups had destabilised the region further in December 2006 and forced the evacuation of up to 400 staff, while up to 100 were killed and thousands displaced after mid-February 2007 tribal clashes in South Darfur. With support from Chad and Eritrea, elements of the rebel groups that did not sign the DPA regrouped as the National Redemption Front (NRF) and since late June 2006 have launched a series of attacks. UN Special Envoy Jan Pronk was expelled from Sudan after making comments noting that the Sudan Armed Forces was suffering from defeats and low morale. The lone rebel signatory of the DPA – the Sudan Liberation Army faction of Minni Minnawi (SLA/MM) – has been increasingly acting as a paramilitary wing of the Sudanese army. Internal displacement continues, with more than 250,000 more internally displaced persons registered in January 2007 than a year previously. Violence against women has surged, with more than 200 instances of sexual assault in five weeks around Kalma camp in South Darfur alone in September/October 2006. April 2007 was the bloodiest month for AMIS since 2004 deployment, with seven soldiers killed. The human security consequences of the Darfur conflict have extended well beyond its borders with hundreds killed in the east of neighbouring Chad and another 120,000 displaced. The international community must think creatively to secure a lasting settlement. More peacekeepers on the ground and an effective ceasefire are essential but so is revitalising the neglected political process. This should be done through a joint AU/UN mediation which needs to unify the rebels so they can negotiate coherently; broaden participation in negotiations; and strengthen the negotiating structure. In addition, implementation of the DPA must be frozen, pending new negotiations. Khartoum will continue to pursue a military solution and defy its obligations unless it is forced to change its calculations. The only way that will happen is through multilateral punitive measures. Without intense international engagement and cooperation, the crisis will continue ravaging Darfur and destabilising the entire region.

Sudan - Humanitarian